高效氮肥对新疆膜下滴灌棉田土壤氧化亚氮排放的影响

高效氮肥对新疆灰漠土农田氧化亚氮(N₂O)排放的影响目前尚不明确.本研究选取树脂包膜尿素(ESN)和尿素配施脲酶抑制剂和硝化抑制剂(U+I)两种高效氮肥处理,以传统尿素(U)处理为对照,研究高效氮肥对新疆膜下滴灌棉田N₂O排放的影响.ESN在播种时一次性施入,而其他处理的氮肥在生育期内随灌溉分次施入.在生育期内,采用静态箱-气相色谱法每周采集和分析2次气体样品.结果表明: 与其他处理相比,ESN处理显著增加了生育期间土壤N₂O的排放量,增幅47%～73%;在施肥后的4个月内,ESN处理下的土壤铵态氮(NH₄⁺-N)和硝态氮(NO₃^--N)含量始终处于较高水平,随后则逐渐减小并与其他处理的含量相近.ESN在播种时全部施入可能是导致土壤高NH₄⁺-N和NO₃^--N含量以及高N₂O排放量的原因.与U处理相比,U+I处理减少了9.9%的N₂O排放量,但两者间差异不显著;U+I处理NO₃^--N含量始终低于ESN和U处理.新疆灰漠土膜下滴灌棉田生育期土壤的N₂O排放为300～500 g N₂O-N·hm^-2,整体低于其他农田生态系统.与播种前全部施入相比,氮肥随滴灌多次施入更利于降低N₂O排放.本试验条件下,高效氮肥对干旱区膜下滴灌棉田土壤N₂O的减排效应有限.     

Greenhouse gas emissions and global warming potential of traditional and diversified tropical rice rotation systems

Global rice agriculture will be increasingly challenged by water scarcity, while at the same time changes in demand (e.g. changes in diets or increasing demand for biofuels) will feed back on agricultural practices. These factors are changing traditional cropping patterns from double‐rice cropping to the introduction of upland crops in the dry season. For a comprehensive assessment of greenhouse gas (GHG) balances, we measured methane (CH₄)/nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions and agronomic parameters over 2.5 years in double‐rice cropping (R‐R) and paddy rice rotations diversified with either maize (R‐M) or aerobic rice (R‐A) in upland cultivation. Introduction of upland crops in the dry season reduced irrigation water use and CH₄ emissions by 66–81% and 95–99%, respectively. Moreover, for practices including upland crops, CH₄ emissions in the subsequent wet season with paddy rice were reduced by 54–60%. Although annual N₂O emissions increased two‐ to threefold in the diversified systems, the strong reduction in CH₄ led to a significantly lower (P < 0.05) annual GWP (CH₄ + N₂O) as compared to the traditional double‐rice cropping system. Measurements of soil organic carbon (SOC) contents before and 3 years after the introduction of upland crop rotations indicated a SOC loss for the R‐M system, while for the other systems SOC stocks were unaffected. This trend for R‐M systems needs to be followed as it has significant consequences not only for the GWP balance but also with regard to soil fertility. Economic assessment showed a similar gross profit span for R‐M and R‐R, while gross profits for R‐A were reduced as a consequence of lower productivity. Nevertheless, regarding a future increase in water scarcity, it can be expected that mixed lowland–upland systems will expand in SE Asia as water requirements were cut by more than half in both rotation systems with upland crops.     

Micrometeorological measurements over 3 years reveal differences in N2O emissions between annual and perennial crops

Perennial crops can deliver a wide range of ecosystem services compared to annual crops. Some of these benefits are achieved by lengthening the growing season, which increases the period of crop water and nutrient uptake, pointing to a potential role for perennial systems to mitigate soil nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions. Employing a micrometeorological method, we tested this hypothesis in a 3‐year field experiment with a perennial grass‐legume mixture and an annual corn monoculture. Given that N₂O emissions are strongly dependent on the method of fertilizer application, two manure application options commonly used by farmers for each crop were studied: injection vs. broadcast application for the perennial; fall vs. spring application for the annual. Across the 3 years, lower N₂O emissions (P < 0.001) were measured for the perennial compared to the annual crop, even though annual N₂O emissions increased tenfold for the perennial after ploughing. The percentage of N₂O lost per unit of fertilizer applied was 3.7, 3.1 and 1.3 times higher for the annual for each consecutive year. Differences in soil organic matter due to the contrasting root systems of these crops are probably a major factor behind the N₂O reduction. We found that a specific manure management practice can lead to increases or reductions in annual N₂O emissions depending on environmental variables. The number of freeze‐thaw cycles during winter and the amount of rainfall after fertilization in spring were key factors. Therefore, general manure management recommendations should be avoided because interannual weather variability has the potential to determine if a specific practice is beneficial or detrimental. The lower N₂O emissions of perennial crops deserve further research attention and must be considered in future land‐use decisions. Increasing the proportion of perennial crops in agricultural landscapes may provide an overlooked opportunity to regulate N₂O emissions.     

Modeling nitrous oxide emission from rivers: a global assessment

Estimates of global riverine nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions contain great uncertainty. We conducted a meta‐analysis incorporating 169 observations from published literature to estimate global riverine N₂O emission rates and emission factors. Riverine N₂O flux was significantly correlated with NH₄, NO₃ and DIN (NH₄ + NO₃) concentrations, loads and yields. The emission factors EF(a) (i.e., the ratio of N₂O emission rate and DIN load) and EF(b) (i.e., the ratio of N₂O and DIN concentrations) values were comparable and showed negative correlations with nitrogen concentration, load and yield and water discharge, but positive correlations with the dissolved organic carbon : DIN ratio. After individually evaluating 82 potential regression models based on EF(a) or EF(b) for global, temperate zone and subtropical zone datasets, a power function of DIN yield multiplied by watershed area was determined to provide the best fit between modeled and observed riverine N₂O emission rates (EF(a): R² = 0.92 for both global and climatic zone models, n = 70; EF(b): R² = 0.91 for global model and R² = 0.90 for climatic zone models, n = 70). Using recent estimates of DIN loads for 6400 rivers, models estimated global riverine N₂O emission rates of 29.6–35.3 (mean = 32.2) Gg N₂O–N yr⁻¹ and emission factors of 0.16–0.19% (mean = 0.17%). Global riverine N₂O emission rates are forecasted to increase by 35%, 25%, 18% and 3% in 2050 compared to the 2000s under the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment's Global Orchestration, Order from Strength, Technogarden, and Adapting Mosaic scenarios, respectively. Previous studies may overestimate global riverine N₂O emission rates (300–2100 Gg N₂O–N yr⁻¹) because they ignore declining emission factor values with increasing nitrogen levels and channel size, as well as neglect differences in emission factors corresponding to different nitrogen forms. Riverine N₂O emission estimates will be further enhanced through refining emission factor estimates, extending measurements longitudinally along entire river networks and improving estimates of global riverine nitrogen loads.     

TLR-7 agonist attenuates airway reactivity and inflammation through Nrf2-mediated antioxidant protection in a murine model of allergic asthma

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) through innate immune system recognize pathogen associated molecular patterns and play an important role in host defense against bacteria, fungi and viruses. TLR-7 is responsible for sensing single stranded nucleic acids of viruses but its activation has been shown to be protective in mouse models of asthma. The NADPH oxidase (NOX) enzymes family mainly produces reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the lung and is involved in regulation of airway inflammation in response to TLRs activation. However, NOX-4 mediated signaling in response to TLR-7 activation in a mouse model of allergic asthma has not been explored previously. Therefore, this study investigated the role TLR-7 activation and downstream oxidant–antioxidant signaling in a murine model of asthma. Mice were sensitized with ovalbumin (OVA) intraperitoneally and treated with TLR-7 agonist, resiquimod (RSQ) intranasally before each OVA challenge from days 14 to 16. Mice were then assessed for airway reactivity, inflammation, and NOX-4 and nuclear factor E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) related signaling [inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), nitrotyrosine, lipid peroxides and copper/zinc superoxide dismutase (Cu/Zn SOD)]. Treatment with RSQ reduced allergen induced airway reactivity and inflammation. This was paralleled by a decrease in ROS which was due to induction of Nrf2 and Cu/Zn SOD in RSQ treated group. Inhibition of MyD88 reversed RSQ-mediated protective effects on airway reactivity/inflammation due to reduction in Nrf2 signaling. SOD inhibition produced effects similar to MyD88 inhibition. The current study suggests that TLR-7 agonist is beneficial and may be developed into a therapeutic option in allergic asthma.     

Regulation of Glucokinase by Intracellular Calcium Levels in Pancreatic β Cells

Glucokinase (GCK) controls the rate of glucose metabolism in pancreatic β cells, and its activity is rate-limiting for insulin secretion. Posttranslational GCK activation can be stimulated through either G protein-coupled receptors or receptor tyrosine kinase signaling pathways, suggesting a common mechanism. Here we show that inhibiting Ca²⁺ release from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) decouples GCK activation from receptor stimulation. Furthermore, pharmacological release of ER Ca²⁺ stimulates activation of a GCK optical biosensor and potentiates glucose metabolism, implicating rises in cytoplasmic Ca²⁺ as a critical regulatory mechanism. To explore the potential for glucose-stimulated GCK activation, the GCK biosensor was optimized using circularly permuted mCerulean3 proteins. This new sensor sensitively reports activation in response to insulin, glucagon-like peptide 1, and agents that raise cAMP levels. Transient, glucose-stimulated GCK activation was observed in βTC3 and MIN6 cells. An ER-localized channelrhodopsin was used to manipulate the cytoplasmic Ca²⁺ concentration in cells expressing the optimized FRET-GCK sensor. This permitted quantification of the relationship between cytoplasmic Ca²⁺ concentrations and GCK activation. Half-maximal activation of the FRET-GCK sensor was estimated to occur at ∼400 nm Ca²⁺. When expressed in islets, fluctuations in GCK activation were observed in response to glucose, and we estimated that posttranslational activation of GCK enhances glucose metabolism by ∼35%. These results suggest a mechanism for integrative control over GCK activation and, therefore, glucose metabolism and insulin secretion through regulation of cytoplasmic Ca²⁺ levels.     

Kinetics of Nitrite Reduction and Peroxynitrite Formation by Ferrous Heme in Human Cystathionine β-Synthase

Cystathionine β-synthase (CBS) is a pyridoxal phosphate-dependent enzyme that catalyzes the condensation of homocysteine with serine or with cysteine to form cystathionine and either water or hydrogen sulfide, respectively. Human CBS possesses a noncatalytic heme cofactor with cysteine and histidine as ligands, which in its oxidized state is relatively unreactive. Ferric CBS (Fe(III)-CBS) can be reduced by strong chemical and biochemical reductants to Fe(II)-CBS, which can bind carbon monoxide (CO) or nitric oxide (NO^•), leading to inactive enzyme. Alternatively, Fe(II)-CBS can be reoxidized by O₂ to Fe(III)-CBS, forming superoxide radical anion (O₂^˙̄). In this study, we describe the kinetics of nitrite (NO₂⁻) reduction by Fe(II)-CBS to form Fe(II)NO^•-CBS. The second order rate constant for the reaction of Fe(II)-CBS with nitrite was obtained at low dithionite concentrations. Reoxidation of Fe(II)NO^•-CBS by O₂ showed complex kinetic behavior and led to peroxynitrite (ONOO⁻) formation, which was detected using the fluorescent probe, coumarin boronic acid. Thus, in addition to being a potential source of superoxide radical, CBS constitutes a previously unrecognized source of NO^• and peroxynitrite.     

Ex vivo analyses of formulated bio-elicitors from a phytopathogen in the improvement of innate immunity in host

Three different bio-elicitors viz. BE 1, BE 2 and BE 3 were formulated from Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici. All three elicitors were screened for defence regulating capacity in an ex vivo system where Lycopersicum esculentum was used as a model host plant. Application of bio-elicitors on detached leaves showed varied degrees of defence induction and antioxidative enzymes and total phenol accumulation after 24 h incubation. Among all, BE 3 (2%) was found to be the most effective. Furthermore, production of nitric oxide (NO) was measured in treated leaves, and concurrently, the extent of oxidative damage was evaluated by measuring reactive oxygen species (ROS), malondialdehyde (MDA), proline and total chlorophyll content. All bio-elicitors except BE 3, which was effective at concentrations as low as 2%, showed enhanced production of MDA and proline and reduction in total chlorophyll at higher concentrations. These results suggest that among three elicitors tested, BE 3 (2%) can be used as a potential bio-elicitor in organic tomato farming.     

NADPH oxidase but not myeloperoxidase protects lymphopenic mice from spontaneous infections

The adaptive immune system plays an important role in host defense against invading micro-organisms. Yet, mice deficient in T- and B-cells are surprisingly healthy and develop few spontaneous infections when raised under specific pathogen-free conditions (SPF). The objective of this study was to ascertain what role phagocyte-associated NADPH oxidase or myeloperoxidase (MPO) plays in host defense in mice lacking both T- and B-cells. To do this, we generated lymphopenic mice deficient in either NADPH oxidase or MPO by crossing gp91(phox)-deficient (gp91 ko) or MPO ko mice with mice deficient in recombinase activating gene-1 (RAG ko). We found that neither gp91 ko, MPO ko mice nor lymphocyte-deficient RAG ko mice developed spontaneous infections when raised under SPF conditions and all mice had life spans similar to wild-type (WT) animals. In contrast, gp91xRAG double-deficient (DKO) but not MPOxRAG DKO mice developed spontaneous multi-organ bacterial and fungal infections early in life and lived only a few months. Infections in the gp91xRAG DKO mice were characterized by granulomatous inflammation of the skin, liver, heart, brain, kidney, and lung. Addition of antibiotics to the drinking water attenuated the spontaneous infections and increased survival of the mice. Oyster glycogen-elicited polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMNs) and macrophages obtained from gp91 ko and gp91xRAG DKO mice had no detectable NADPH oxidase activity whereas WT, RAG ko, and MPOxRAG DKO PMNs and macrophages produced large and similar amounts of superoxide in response to phorbol myristate acetate. The enhanced mortality of the gp91xRAG DKO mice was not due to defects in inflammatory cell recruitment or NO synthase activity (iNOS) as total numbers of elicited PMNs and macrophages as well as PMN- and macrophage-derived production of nitric oxide-derived metabolites in these mice were similar and not reduced when compared to that of WT mice. Taken together, our data suggest that that NADPH oxidase but not MPO (nor iNOS) is required for host defense in lymphopenic mice and that lymphocytes and NADPH oxidase may compensate for each other's deficiency in providing resistance to spontaneous bacterial infections.